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Environmental Science and Engineering
Author: Henry, J. Glynn

Cover: Hard cover
List Price: $139.00
Published by Prentice Hall
Date Published: 02/1998
ISBN: 0131206508


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PREFACE                                            xvi  
  ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS                 xviii
  Part I  Causes of Environmental Problems           1    
    1  THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL         1    
    PROBLEMS
          Gary W. Heinke
      1.1  What This Book Is About                   1    
      1.2  Some Important Definitions                2    
      1.3  Interaction of Systems                    2    
      1.4  Environmental Disturbances                3    
      1.5  Public Awareness and Action               7    
      1.6  The Changing Role of Technology           9    
        1.6.1  Sustainable Development               9    
        1.6.2  Preventive Technology                 10   
      1.7  Quantification of Environmental Issues    11   
      Problems                                       11   
      References                                     12   
    2  POPULATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH                14   
          Gary W. Heinke
      2.1  Introduction                              14   
      2.2  Population Growth                         15   
        2.2.1  The Nature of Population Growth       15   
        2.2.2  Population Growth in More             17   
        Developed and Less Developed Regions
        2.2.3  Population Parameters                 22   
        2.2.4  Population Projections and Methods    25   
        2.2.5  Momentum of World Population Growth   29   
      2.3  Industrialization                         30   
        2.3.1  Measures of Economic Growth and       31   
        Industrialization
        2.3.2  Technology of Production              35   
      2.4  Urbanization                              36   
        2.4.1  Definition of Urbanization            37   
        2.4.2  Growth of Cities                      38   
      2.5  Environmental Impact                      40   
      2.6  The Dilemma of Industrialization and      44   
      Urbanization
      Problems                                       46   
      References                                     47   
    3  ENERGY GROWTH                                 49   
          O. J. C. Runnalls
          Donald Mackay
      3.1  Sources of Primary Energy                 50   
      3.2  Current Consumption of Energy             52   
      3.3  Future Consumption and Availability of    60   
      Energy Sources
      3.4  Environmental Impacts of Energy           64   
      Development
      3.5 Environmental Impact Matrices              69   
        3.5.1  Environmental Impacts of Oil          70   
        3.5.2  Environmental Impacts of Natural      72   
        Gas
        3.5.3  Environmental Impacts of Coal         73   
        3.5.4  Environmental Impacts of              75   
        Hydroelectric Development
        3.5.5  Environmental Impacts of Nuclear      76   
        Power
      3.6  Case Study:  Canada's Energy Situation    78   
      Problems                                       82   
      References                                     84   
    4  NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS                 85   
          Ian Burton
      4.1  Introduction                              85   
      4.2  Classification and Measurement of         86   
      Natural Hazards
      4.3  What is a Natural Hazard?                 89   
      4.4  Extreme Events and Environmental Change   92   
      4.5  Impacts and Trends                        93   
      4.6  Adjustments and Their Classification      98   
        4.6.1  Preindustrial Approach                98   
        4.6.2  Industrial Approach                   98   
        4.6.3  Postindustrial Approach               101  
        4.6.4 Classification                         103  
      4.7  A Theoretical Perspective:  Future        104  
      Possible Responses
      Problems                                       107  
      References                                     108  
    5  HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCES              111  
          F. Kenneth Hare
          Thomas C. Hutchinson
      5.1  Overview                                  111  
      5.2  The Greenhouse Effect and Ozone           113  
      Depletion:  Global Issues
        5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse    113  
        Gases
        5.2.2  Effects of Greenhouse Gas Buildup     115  
        5.2.3  The Ozone Depletion Problem           119  
        5.2.4  Control Measures:  The Climate        120  
        Change Convention
      5.3  Acid Rain:  A Regional Issue              122  
        5.3.1  The Nature of the Problem             122  
        5.3.2  Sources and Distribution of Acid      122  
        Rain
        5.3.3  Effects of Acid Rain on Aquatic       123  
        Systems
        5.3.4  Effects of Acid Rain on               129  
        Terrestrial Ecosystems
        5.3.5  Effects of Acid Rain on               133  
        Groundwater,  Materials,  and Buildings
        5.3.6  Remedial and Control Measures         135  
      5.4  Lessons Learned                           137  
      5.5  Epilogue                                  138  
      Problems                                       139  
      References                                     140  
  Part 2  Scientific Background                      142  
    6  PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY                         142  
          Gary W. Heinke
          J. Glynn Henry
      6.1  Introduction                              142  
      6.2 Particle Dispersion                        142  
        6.2.1  Particle Size,  Shape,  and           143  
        Distribution
        6.2.2  Colloidal Dispersions                 145  
        6.2.3  Methods of Expressing Particle        146  
        Concentrations
        6.2.4  Settling of a Particle In a Fluid     147  
      6.3  Solutions                                 150  
        6.3.1  Solutions and Solubility              150  
        6.3.2  Methods of Expressing the             152  
        Composition of Solutions
        6.3.3  Acid-Base Reactions                   158  
      6.4  Gases,  Gaseous Mixtures,  and Gas        169  
      Liquid Transfer
        6.4.1  Gas Laws                              169  
        6.4.2  Gas Liquid Transfer                   175  
      6.5  Material Balances                         179  
        6.5.1  Concept of Material Balance           179  
        6.5.2  Guidelines for Making Material        183  
        Balances
        6.5.3  Examples of Material Balances         184  
      6.6  Reaction Kinetics and Reactors            189  
        6.6.1  Reaction Kinetics                     189  
        6.6.2  Types of Reactors                     195  
        6.6.3  Determination of Reaction Rates       203  
        6.6.4  Principles of Reactor Design          205  
      Problems                                       208  
      References                                     215  
    7  ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES                          216  
          F. Kenneth Hare
      7.1  Introduction                              216  
      7.2  Basic Atmospheric Properties              217  
        7.2.1  Composition and Physical State        217  
        7.2.2  Thermal and Electrical State          219  
      7.3  Energy Outputs and Inputs                 221  
        7.3.1  Solar Radiation                       221  
        7.3.2  Terrestrial Radiation                 223  
        7.3.3  Surface Radiation Balance             224  
        7.3.4  Energy Use at the Surface             228  
      7.4  Wind,  Stability,  and Turbulence         229  
        7.4.1  Motion of the Lower Atmosphere        229  
        7.4.2  Turbulence and Stability              232  
      7.5  Water in the Atmosphere                   235  
        7.5.1  Humidity and Precipitation            235  
        7.5.2  The Hydrologic Cycle                  238  
      7.6  Climate                                   242  
        7.6.1  World Distribution                    242  
        7.6.2  Climatic Variability                  245  
        7.6.3  The Climatic System                   246  
        7.6.4  Urban Climates                        247  
      Problems                                       250  
      References                                     252  
    8  MICROBIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY                 254  
          Gary W. Heinke
      8.1  Introduction                              254  
      8.2  Fundamentals of Microbiology              255  
        8.2.1  Classification of Microorganisms      255  
        8.2.2  Bacteria                              256  
        8.2.3  Growth and Death of Bacteria          260  
        8.2.4  Viruses,  Algae, Fungi,  and          265  
        Protozoa
      8.3  Applied Microbiology                      271  
        8.3.1  Soil and Solid Waste Microbiology     271  
        8.3.2  Water and Wastewater Microbiology     273  
        and Indicator Organisms
        8.3.3  Atmospheric and Indoor Air            275  
        Microbiology
      8.4  Epidemiology and Disease                  278  
        8.4.1  Sanitation and Health                 278  
        8.4.2  Pathogens                             279  
        8.4.3  Waterborne Diseases and Water         283  
        Quality
        8.4.4  Airborne Diseases                     288  
        8.4.5  Insect- and Rodent-borne Diseases     290  
      8.5  Noninfectious Diseases                    292  
        8.5.1  Inorganic Contaminants                293  
        8.5.2  Organic Contaminants                  297  
        8.5.3  Safe Limits                           298  
      Problems                                       299  
      References                                     301  
    9  ECOLOGY                                       303  
          Thomas C. Hutchinson
      9.1  Introductory Concepts                     303  
      9.2  Energy Flow in Ecosystems                 304  
        9.2.1 Estimates of Primary Production        306  
        9.2.2  Comparison of Primary Productivity    308  
        in Different World Ecosystems
        9.2.3  Energy Flow in Ecosystems beyond      310  
        Primary Producers
      9.3  Food Chain and Trophic Levels             311  
      9.4  Nutrient Cycles                           313  
        9.4.1  Carbon Cycle                          313  
        9.4.2  Nitrogen Cycle                        314  
        9.4.3  Phosphorus Cycle                      316  
      9.5  Elements of Limnology                     320  
        9.5.1  Quantity and Quality of Water         321  
        9.5.2  Biotic Communities                    321  
        9.5.3  Light in Lakes                        322  
        9.5.4  Temperature and Vertical              324  
        Stratification of Lakes
      9.6  Eutrophication                            326  
        9.6.1  The Problem                           326  
        9.6.2  Physical Chemical and Biological      327  
        Changes
        9.6.3  Control of Eutrophication             328  
        9.6.4  Case Study:  The Great Lakes          329  
        9.6.5  A New Challenge:  Coastal Estuaries   333  
      Problems                                       334  
      References                                     335  
  Part 3  Technology and Control                     337  
    10  WATER RESOURCES                              337  
          J. Glynn Henry
      10.1 Introduction                              337  
      10.2  Water Resources Management               338  
        10.2.1  Importance of Water                  338  
        10.2.2  Need for Control                     339  
        10.2.3  Objectives in Water Resources        340  
        Management
      10.3  Technological Considerations             341  
        10.3.1  Properties of Water                  341  
        10.3.2  Annual Precipitation                 342  
        10.3.3  Quantity of Water Available          343  
        10.3.4  Water Use                            347  
        10.3.5  Options for Meeting Water Demands    349  
        10.3.6  Quantifying Ecological and Social    352  
        Effects
      10.4  Planning Requirements                    354  
        10.4.1  Purpose of Planning                  354  
        10.4.2  Stages in the Planning Process       355  
        10.4.3  Formulation of the Study             355  
        10.4.4  Evaluation of Alternatives and       357  
        Their Effects
        10.4.5  Adoption of a Plan                   361  
      10.5  Legislative Controls                     361  
      10.6  Political Influences                     363  
        10.6.1  Pressure Groups                      363  
        10.6.2  Management Policies                  365  
      10.7  Future Challenges                        368  
      10.8  Case Studies                             371  
        10.8.1  The Peripheral Canal                 371  
        10.8.2  The Occoquan Watershed               376  
      Problems                                       379  
      References                                     381  
    11  WATER SUPPLY                                 383  
          Gary W. Heinke
      11.1  Introduction                             383  
      11.2  Water Quantity Requirements              384  
        11.2.1  Water Demand                         384  
        11.2.2  Fluctuations in Water Use            386  
      11.3 Water Quality Requirements                389  
        11.3.1  Water Quality Standards              389  
        11.3.2  Physical Characteristics             390  
        11.3.3  Chemical Characteristics             392  
      11.4 Sources of Water                          392  
        11.4.1  Groundwater                          392  
        11.4.2  Surface Water                        394  
        11.4.3  Seawater                             395  
        11.4.4  Reclaimed Wastewater                 395  
      11.5  Water Treatment Processes                395  
        11.5.1  Water Treatment Plants               395  
        11.5.2  Removal of Particulate Matter        397  
        11.5.3  Disinfection                         405  
        11.5.4  Removal of Dissolved Substances      407  
      11.6  Transmission,  Distribution,  and        409  
      Storage of Water
        11.6.1  Transmission                         409  
        11.6.2  Distribution                         410  
        11.6.3  Storage                              411  
      11.7  Future Needs and Development             415  
      Problems                                       416  
      References                                     420  
    12  WATER POLLUTION                              421  
          J. Glynn Henry
      12.1  Introduction                             421  
      12.2  Wastewater                               422  
        12.2.1  Constituents                         422  
        12.2.2  BOD Measurement                      425  
        12.2.3 Municipal Wastewater                  427  
        12.2.4  Industrial Wastewater                428  
        12.2.5  Stormwater                           428  
      12.3  Pollution of Receiving Waters            431  
        12.3.1  Effects of Pollutants                431  
        12.3.2  Water Quality Requirements           433  
        13.3.3  Need for Pollution Control           435  
      12.4  Wastewater Collection                    436  
        12.4.1  Early Systems                        436  
        12.4.2  Present Systems                      436  
        12.4.3  Pollution from Combined Sewer        438  
        Overflows
      12.5  Principles of Wastewater Treatment       440  
        12.5.1 Effluent Requirements                 440  
        12.5.2  Treatment Processes                  440  
        12.5.3  Selection of Treatment Method        450  
      12.6  Land-Based Treatment Methods             451  
        12.6.1  Land Application Systems             451  
        12.6.2  Impoundment Systems                  452  
      12.7  Wastewater Treatment Plants              456  
        12.7.1  Suspended-Growth Systems             457  
        12.7.2 Suspended Growth Kinetics             461  
        12.7.3  Fixed Film Processes                 470  
        12.7.4  Sludge Processing                    474  
        12.7.5  Residuals Disposal                   479  
        12.7.6  Odor Problems                        481  
      12.8  On-Site Treatment Facilities             481  
        12.8.1  Waterless Systems                    482  
        12.8.2  Septic Tanks                         482  
        12.8.3  Package Plants                       483  
      12.9  Government/Public Role in Pollution      484  
      Control
        12.9.1  Government Subsidies                 484  
        12.9.2  Direct Regulation                    485  
        12.9.3  Municipal Bylaws                     485  
        12.9.4  Public Involvement                   485  
      12.10  Trends in Controlling Water Pollution   486  
      Problems                                       487  
      References                                     491  
    13  AIR POLLUTION                                492  
          William J. Moroz
      13.1  Air Pollution in Perspective             492  
        13.1.1  Introduction                         492  
        13.1.2  Air Pollution Episodes               493  
        13.1.3  The Los Angeles Smog                 495  
        13.1.4  Global and Regional Pollutants       497  
        13.1.5  The Principal Atmospheric            497  
        Pollutants
      13.2  Effects of Air Pollution                 498  
        13.2.1  Health Effects                       498  
        13.2.2  Effects on Plants and Animals        502  
        13.2.3  Effects on Materials and Services    503  
        13.2.4  Ambient Air Quality Standards        503  
      13.3  Sources of Air Pollution                 506  
        13.3.1  Identifying Air Pollutants           506  
        13.3.2  Natural Sources                      508  
        13.3.3  Domestic Sources                     510  
        13.3.4  Commercial Sources                   511  
        13.3.5  Agricultural Sources                 512  
        13.3.6  Industrial Sources                   513  
        13.3.7  Transportation-related Sources       517  
      13.4  Control of Air Pollution                 521  
        13.4.1  Natural Cleansing of the             521  
        Atmosphere
        13.4.2  Air Quality Control                  522  
        13.4.3  Particle Emission Control            523  
        13.4.4  Gas Emission Control                 536  
        13.4.5  Flow Diagrams for Typical            538  
        Recovery Processes
        13.4.6  Nitrogen Oxide Emission Control      546  
        13.4.7  Ambient Air Quality Control by       547  
        Dilution
      13.5  Predicting Air Pollutant                 548  
      Concentrations
        13.5.1  Air Pollution Meteorology            548  
        13.5.2  Pollution Dispersion Models          552  
        13.5.3  Plume Rise Models                    556  
        13.5.4  Other Pollutant Dispersion Models    558  
        and the Accuracy of Predictions
      13.6  Air Pollution Control Costs              559  
        13.6.1 Coal-Fired Power Plant                559  
        13.6.2  Automobile Emissions Control Costs   560  
      Problems                                       560  
      References                                     565  
    14  SOLID WASTES                                 567  
          J. Glynn Henry
      14.1  Introduction                             567  
      14.2  Characteristics of Solid Wastes          568  
        14.2.1  What is Solid Waste?                 568  
        14.2.2  Changes in Municipal Solid Waste     569  
        14.2.3  Quantities                           571  
        14.2.4  Characteristics                      572  
      14.3  Considerations in Solid Waste            577  
      Management
        14.3.1  Protection of Public Health and      577  
        the Environment
        14.3.2  Source Reduction                     578  
        14.3.3  Recycling                            578  
        14.3.4  Recovery of Energy                   580  
      14.4  Collection Systems                       581  
        14.4.1  Ease and Frequency of Pickup         581  
        14.4.2  Collection Equipment                 582  
        14.4.3  Transfer Stations                    583  
        14.4.4  Rail Haul                            584  
        14.4.5  Route Selection                      585  
      14.5  Separation and Processing of MSW         586  
        14.5.1  At-Source Separation and             586  
        Processing
        14.5.2  Central Separation and Processing    587  
      14.6  Conversion of MSW                        590  
        14.6.1  Incineration                         590  
        14.6.2  Composting                           595  
        14.6.3  Other Conversion Processes           596  
      14.7 Landfilling                               596  
        14.7.1  Design Criteria for Sanitary         597  
        Landfills
        14.7.2  Problems with Landfilling            598  
        14.7.3  Leachate Generation Control and      600  
        Treatment
        14.7.4  Gas Production                       608  
      14.8  Future Opportunities                     609  
        14.8.1  Legislation                          610  
        14.8.2  Collection                           610  
        14.8.3  Incineration                         610  
        14.8.4  Landfilling                          611  
      Problems                                       612  
      References                                     617  
    15  HAZARDOUS WASTES                             620  
          J. Glynn Henry
          O. J. C. Runnalls
      15.1  Introduction                             620  
      15.2  Nuclear Wastes                           622  
        15.2.1  Health and Environmental Effects     622  
        15.2.2  Nuclear Wastes from Uranium          628  
        Mining and Processing
        15.2.3  Nuclear Wastes from Power Reactors   629  
        15.2.4  Management of Nuclear Wastes         631  
        15.2.5  Decommissioning of Nuclear Power     636  
        Reactors
        15.2.6  Concluding Remarks                   636  
      15.3  Biomedical Wastes                        636  
        15.3.1  Types of Waste                       636  
        15.3.2  Control of Biomedical Wastes         637  
      15.4  Chemical Wastes                          638  
        15.4.1  Need for Control                     638  
        15.4.2  Environmental Effects                638  
      15.5  Identifying a Hazardous Waste            640  
        15.5.1  Methods                              640  
        15.5.2  United States Practice               641  
      15.6  Hazardous Waste Management               645  
        15.6.1  Quantities of Hazardous Wastes       646  
        Generated
        15.6.2  Components of a Hazardous Waste      649  
        Management Plan
        15.6.3  Hazardous Waste Minimization         650  
      15.7  Treatment and Disposal of Chemical       651  
      Wastes
        15.7.1  Treatment and Disposal by Industry   651  
        15.7.2  Off-Site Hazardous Waste             653  
        Treatment and Disposal
        15.7.3  Quantities to Be Landfilled          654  
        15.7.4  Practices in Western Europe and      656  
        the United Kingdom
        15.7.5  Practices in North America           662  
      15.8  The Secure Landfill                      665  
        15.8.1  Function                             665  
        15.8.2  Acceptable Wastes                    665  
        15.8.3  Site Selection and Approval          666  
        15.8.4  Design and Construction              667  
        15.8.5  Problems                             668  
      15.9  Treatment and Disposal of Leachate       670  
        15.9.1  Combined Treatment                   670  
        15.9.2  Separate Treatment                   670  
      15.10  Site Remediation                        671  
        15.10.1  Remedial Techniques                 673  
        15.10.2  Case Study:  Remediation at the     676  
        Seymour,  Indiana,  Superfund Site
      15.11  Future Challenges                       677  
      Problems                                       679  
      References                                     682  
    16  ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT                     685  
          R. Ted Munn
          Gary W. Heinke
          J. Glynn Henry
      16.1  Introduction                             685  
      16.2  Sustainable Development                  686  
      16.3  Environmental Impact Assessment          687  
        16.3.1  Historical Perspective               687  
        16.3.2  Elements of the Environmental        689  
        Impact Assessment Process
        16.3.3  Design of an Environmental Impact    692  
        Assessment
        16.3.4  International EIAs                   695  
        16.3.5  Conclusions                          695  
        16.3.6  Case Study:  Atmospheric             696  
        Component of an EIA for a Coal-Fired
        Power Station
      16.4  Pollution Control Strategies             700  
        16.4.1  Economic Aspects                     700  
        16.4.2  Ambient and Effluent Standards       701  
        16.4.3  Regulations for Controlling          702  
        Environmental Pollution
        16.4.4  Case Study:  Toxic Chemical          709  
        Wastes--The Niagara River Problem
      16.5  Environmental Ethics                     715  
        16.5.1  Ethics in Society                    715  
        16.5.2  Environmental Consequences           716  
        16.5.3  Responsibility for Environmental     717  
        Degradation
        16.5.4  Ethical Theories and Codes of        718  
        Ethics
        16.5.5  Ethical Problem Solving              719  
        16.5.6  Changing Attitudes                   722  
        16.5.7  Conclusions                          724  
      Problems                                       726  
      References                                     728  
  Appendix A  SYMBOLS,  DIMENSIONS,  AND UNITS       730  
  Appendix B  PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS      748  
  Appendix C  ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS              755  
  Appendix D  SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS         758  
  INDEX                                              761